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Faced with a wide range of varied interactions between chemical substances, scientists have likewise found it convenient or even necessary to classify chemical interactions by identifying common patterns of reactivity. This module will provide an introduction to three of the most prevalent types of chemical reactions: precipitation, acid-base, and oxidation-reduction.
A precipitation reaction is one in which dissolved substances react to form one or more solid products. Many reactions of this type involve the exchange of ions between ionic compounds in aqueous solution and are sometimes referred to as double displacement , double replacement , or metathesis reactions. These reactions are common in nature and are responsible for the formation of coral reefs in ocean waters and kidney stones in animals. They are used widely in industry for production of a number of commodity and specialty chemicals.
Precipitation reactions also play a central role in many chemical analysis techniques, including spot tests used to identify metal ions and gravimetric methods for determining the composition of matter see the last module of this chapter. The extent to which a substance may be dissolved in water, or any solvent, is quantitatively expressed as its solubility , defined as the maximum concentration of a substance that can be achieved under specified conditions.
Substances with relatively large solubilities are said to be soluble. A substance will precipitate when solution conditions are such that its concentration exceeds its solubility. Substances with relatively low solubilities are said to be insoluble , and these are the substances that readily precipitate from solution. More information on these important concepts is provided in the text chapter on solutions. For purposes of predicting the identities of solids formed by precipitation reactions, one may simply refer to patterns of solubility that have been observed for many ionic compounds Table 1.
A vivid example of precipitation is observed when solutions of potassium iodide and lead nitrate are mixed, resulting in the formation of solid lead iodide:. This observation is consistent with the solubility guidelines: The only insoluble compound among all those involved is lead iodide, one of the exceptions to the general solubility of iodide salts. The properties of pure PbI 2 crystals make them useful for fabrication of X-ray and gamma ray detectors.
Figure 1. The solubility guidelines in Table 2. The solubility guidelines indicate all nitrate salts are soluble but that AgF is one of the exceptions to the general solubility of fluoride salts.
A precipitation reaction, therefore, is predicted to occur, as described by the following equations:. Predict the result of mixing reasonably concentrated solutions of the following ionic compounds.
If precipitation is expected, write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction. No precipitation is expected. The solubility guidelines indicate AgCl is insoluble, and so a precipitation reaction is expected.
The net ionic equation for this reaction, derived in the manner detailed in the previous module, is. What is the formula for the expected precipitate? Such reactions are of central importance to numerous natural and technological processes, ranging from the chemical transformations that take place within cells and the lakes and oceans, to the industrial-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and other substances essential to society.
The subject of acid-base chemistry, therefore, is worthy of thorough discussion, and a full chapter is devoted to this topic later in the text. For purposes of this brief introduction, we will consider only the more common types of acid-base reactions that take place in aqueous solutions. As an example, consider the equation shown here:.
The process represented by this equation confirms that hydrogen chloride is an acid. Figure 2. When hydrogen chloride gas dissolves in water, a it reacts as an acid, transferring protons to water molecules to yield b hydronium ions and solvated chloride ions. Acids that completely react in this fashion are called strong acids , and HCl is one among just a handful of common acid compounds that are classified as strong Table 2.
A far greater number of compounds behave as weak acids and only partially react with water, leaving a large majority of dissolved molecules in their original form and generating a relatively small amount of hydronium ions. Weak acids are commonly encountered in nature, being the substances partly responsible for the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation of insect bites, and the unpleasant smells associated with body odor.
A familiar example of a weak acid is acetic acid, the main ingredient in food vinegars:. The use of a double-arrow in the equation above denotes the partial reaction aspect of this process, a concept addressed fully in the chapters on chemical equilibrium.
Figure 3. The hydrogen atoms that may be transferred during an acid-base reaction are highlighted in the inset molecular structures. A base is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH —. The most common bases are ionic compounds composed of alkali or alkaline earth metal cations groups 1 and 2 combined with the hydroxide ion—for example, NaOH and Ca OH 2.
When these compounds dissolve in water, hydroxide ions are released directly into the solution. These bases, along with other hydroxides that completely dissociate in water, are considered strong bases. This equation confirms that sodium hydroxide is a base. This is also true for any other ionic compound containing hydroxide ions.
Since the dissociation process is essentially complete when ionic compounds dissolve in water under typical conditions, NaOH and other ionic hydroxides are all classified as strong bases.
Unlike ionic hydroxides, some compounds produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by chemically reacting with water molecules. In all cases, these compounds react only partially and so are classified as weak bases. These types of compounds are also abundant in nature and important commodities in various technologies.
For example, global production of the weak base ammonia is typically well over metric tons annually, being widely used as an agricultural fertilizer, a raw material for chemical synthesis of other compounds, and an active ingredient in household cleaners Figure 4. When dissolved in water, ammonia reacts partially to yield hydroxide ions, as shown here:.
Figure 4. Ammonia is a weak base used in a variety of applications. The chemical reactions described in which acids and bases dissolved in water produce hydronium and hydroxide ions, respectively, are, by definition, acid-base reactions. In these reactions, water serves as both a solvent and a reactant.
A neutralization reaction is a specific type of acid-base reaction in which the reactants are an acid and a base, the products are often a salt and water, and neither reactant is the water itself:. To illustrate a neutralization reaction, consider what happens when a typical antacid such as milk of magnesia an aqueous suspension of solid Mg OH 2 is ingested to ease symptoms associated with excess stomach acid HCl :.
Note that in addition to water, this reaction produces a salt, magnesium chloride. A double-arrow is appropriate in this equation because it indicates the HOCl is a weak acid that has not reacted completely.
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Cite this. Abstract General chemistry is a freshman-level class required for most science majors and pre-professional undergraduates. Keywords: chemical reactions ; chemistry textbooks ; freshman-level course ; general chemistry ; reaction classifications.
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